By Susanna,
*The Causes of the Renaissance*
- The Middle Ages, which began around 500 AD,
finally came to an end around 1450 AD.
- Though the beginning of the Renaissance, which signaled
the end of the Middle Ages, occurred in the city-states of
- The conditions that led to the Renaissance in
*The Definition of the Renaissance*
- The Renaissance (French Term) means the rebirth
of culture. However, it would be more accurately put as the rebirth of ancient
culture since the Middle Ages did have a form of culture, just not the same
culture as the ancients.
- An essential element of the Renaissance was the
beginning of humanism, which glorified the culture of Ancient Greece and
*The Four Aspects of Humanism*
- Humanism was a new philosophy that really defined
the Renaissance. Although it was an intellectual movement and didn’t really
spread to most people, it had a huge impact on the age.
- Though many believe that humanism replaced
religion in the Renaissance, in reality, the two coexisted. Most humanists were
actually religious, and the only difference between the beliefs of church and
of the humanists had was that the humanists believed that this life was
important and should be enjoyed while the church did not, and felt that people
should focus on awaiting the afterlife instead.
- Humanism consists of four essential aspects,
which are as follows:
- Humanism also had a subdivision known as civic
humanism. The civic humanists believed that participation in public affairs
was essential for human development, and that individuals should not cut
themselves off from society and study the world. Instead, they should help make
changes in it by becoming a part of government. Eventually, the beliefs of the
civic humanists spread to the humanists as a whole.
*The Humanists*
- Petrarch - Boccaccio –Dante all before
1450 wrote in vernacular
- Baldassare Castiglione à writer who is best
known for his novel, The Courtier, which, by taking the form of a
conversation between the sophisticated men and women of a court in Urbino,
became a manual of proper behavior for gentlemen and ladies for centuries to
come.
- Marsilio Ficino à was a member of a
new, later group of humanists called the Neoplatonists,
who believed in studying the grand ideas in the work of Plato and other
philosophers as opposed to leading the “active life” the civic humanists lead.
Ficino believed that Plato’s ideas showed the dignity and immortality of the
human soul.
*Humanist Art*
- The area in which the humanists really excelled
was art. Though some of the novels and essays written in the time have become
classics, none of their writing (or any other area) ever came close to being as
brilliant as their art.
- Also, during the Renaissance, great artists
gained special recognition and prestige instead of simply being craftsmen.
- Architecture, sculpture and art emphasize
humanity rather than God although still focused on God
- Humanity is represented as noble, full of
potential and proud but not arrogant.
Humanity is not represented as heroic or triumphant until Rome
|
*Characteristics of Medieval Art* |
*Characteristics of Renaissance Art* |
|
- Paintings were lacking in depth and
perspective. - Paintings usually lacked a background. - Always themed religiously and usually focusing
on heaven or holy people. - The paintings were not realistic, and made no
sense geometrically or mathematically. - The subjects did not show any emotions, except
for calm or piety. |
- Emulation of the Ancient Greeks and Romans. - Good use of depth in paintings. - Linear (further away = smaller) and
atmospheric (further away = hazier) perspective. - Paintings began to have more detailed
backgrounds. - Not necessarily religious, more focus on
earthly themes and humans. - More realistic, geometrically precise and
mathematically accurate. - Subjects showing signs of more emotion. - Contraposto posture, in which the
subject is shifting his or her balance. |
*Artists of the Early Renaissance*
- Giotto à - Masaccio à (1401 – 1428) - Brunelleschi à (1377 – 1446)
- Donatello à (1386 – 1466) was
mainly a sculptor whose focus was on the beauty of the human body. He made some
of the first nude sculptures since the ancients.
*Artists of the High Renaissance*
- Leonardo à (1452 – 1519) was a
painter (and a scientist, writer, and inventor) whose paintings are remarkable
for their technical perfection, in other words, for their good use of angles,
perspective, and a detailed background.
- Raphael à (1483 – 1520) was a
painter who used his mastery of perspective and ancient styles to produce works
of harmony, beauty, and serenity and convey a sense of peace.
- Michelangelo à (1475 – 1564) was a
painter who also experimented in poetry, architecture, and sculpture. Most of
his work focuses on individuals who always give a sense of strength and
ambition.
- Titian à (1479 – 1576) was a painter who painted scenes of luxury in such a
vivid, immediate way that his paintings seem real to the viewer. Lived in Venice and did his work after the
sack of Rome in 1527
Popes and Priests from the Renaissance
Savonarola – turn from your evil ways and burn your
evil books, paintings, and other stuff that.
Then Florence burned him in 1498
Alexander VI – weasel Borgia Pope who had multiple
mistresses, multiple children and used the Papal office for money and
pleasure. Bad, bad boy. Also put the Treaty of Tordesillas into place.
Patrons to Know
Pazzi family – Pazzi Chapel
Medici Family (Cosmo, Lorenzo, Julius II and
others) – Library of San Marco, Leonardo, Michealangeol, Pope Julius II was
Medici and commissioned Sistine Chapel and St Peter’s Basilica
Wars from Italian Renaissance
The Italian Wars –city states tried to extend their
influence politically and militarily by alliances and small wars throughout the
1400s and early 1500s. France and Spain
also wanted to control Italy once it started making money from trade. Italian city states often sided with France
or Spain to gain influence and then double crossed each other. Julius II extended the power of the Pope by
fighting Venice and all of the petty fighting came to and end when Rome was
sacked in 1527 by the Spanish and French troops. Italy declined from the most important place
in Europe to a nice place to watch the sunset while enjoying some pasta.
*Existing System of Government in England in 1400
- Local administration à members of the
gentry (not technically members of the nobility, but still had large estates
and were dominant political figures) were chosen to become JPs. The JPs were
voluntary unpaid officials that served as the principal public servant in the
more than forty counties. Since the gentry wanted appointments for reasons of
status, the king could always count on their support.
- Lawmaking à though the Parliament grew in power, it always remained subordinate to
the crown. Nevertheless, the English kings knew that they couldn’t take severe
measures without its consent. The Parliament contributed to the unification of
the country, even though it took away power from kings.
- Judiciary à the common law (based on the interpretations and precedents made by
individual judges), not Roman law was in effect, and traveling judges
administered it. This helped unify the country as well.
*Changes made by Henry VII and Henry VIII*
- Henry VII à founder of the Tudor
dynasty, Henry VII came to power shortly after the War of Roses, a civil war
that weakened the nobles greatly. He was a conservative, and strengthened the
crown by applying the traditional methods, such as:
- Henry VIII à tended to enact more
radical measures than did his father, such as:
*Existing System of Government in France in 1450*
- Local administration à there was no real
system for local government, and aristocrats were virtually independent rulers
until the new monarchs came along.
- Royal administration à had three
departments: the Chancery (had charge of formal documents), the Treasury ($),
and the Parlement of France (the court of law). Roman law was used, helped the
king because the monarch was able to issue ordinances.
- Lawmaking à representative assemblies, known as Estates, limited the throne’s power
because the estates had to approve measures made by the king before they were
enacted. The throne was forced to negotiate with the estates, especially to
raise taxes. Nevertheless, the Estates never were as powerful as the English
Parliament. The taxes (the sales tax, hearth tax, and salt tax) all went to the
crown and after 1451, they could be collected on the king’s authority alone.
- Army à unlike the English, they had a standing army that was rarely used but
always a threat, so it increased the king’s power. However, it took an enormous
amount of funding.
*Changes made by Louis XI and Charles VIII*
- Louis XI à began his reign
after the Hundred Years War, which weakened the crown. At the beginning of his
reign, there was anarchy, and the king had no power. However, changes he made
reestablished the crown’s power. For example:
- Charles VIII à he began the
invasion of Italy, which was eventually a failure, since the Hapsburgs kicked
his butt. However, it did provide a distraction for the restless and aggressive
nobles.
*Changes made by Louis XII, Francis I and Henri II*
- Louis XII à began reign after
Charles VIII and before Francis I. He made many changes, including:
- Francis I à took over after
Louis XII, made most changes of any new monarch in France, such as:
- Henry II à son of Francis I.
Under his rule, the French finally lost the Italian war to the Hapsburgs.
*Existing System of Government in Spain*
- The Iberian Peninsula was divided into three
different sections, as follows:
- In October 1469 Isabella of Castile married
Ferdinand of Sicily, which led to a ten-year civil war which the two monarchs
won.
*Changes made by Ferdinand and Isabella*
- Although Ferdinand and Isabella made no attempt
to form a monolithic state (all united) they did somewhat unify Spain into a
federation where the nobles lost power.
- Each province was treated differently, and
changes were made as follows:
- They also made general changes, such as:
Part II 2006-07 AP European History
*The Holy Roman Empire under Charles V*
- Charles V was the king of Spain but the Cortes
didn’t like him because he requested additional tax funds so that he could take
the Spanish troops and try to unify the HRE. So, effectively, he wasted all of
Spain’s $ from the new world on stupid wars! Naturally, when Charles V left for
war, the poor people revolted but the nobles put down the rebellion before
Charles V came back. The nobles sided against the peasants only because along
with attacking Charles, they attacked the nobles.
- After the uprising, he kept his administration
entirely Spanish. While he was fighting outside wars, he relied entirely on a
skilled administrator, Francisco de los Cobos, who enlarged the administration
and the system of councils. He made two types of councils, one of each
department of government and the other for each territory ruled. At the head
was the Council of State. A federation emerged, like US.
- Though corruption was widespread, centralization
gave monarch lots of power. Spain’s administration was the most detailed,
though it was not always the most efficient.
- Charles’ major problem was $ because he wasted
all of it on his stupid wars (like the one against the Ottomans, and all the
ones against the Schmalkaldic League in HRE) in Europe. Since Aragon was more
independent, the entire tax burden fell on Castile, but Castile did get a
monopoly of trade with the New World, which gave them lots of silver. However,
the monopoly eventually led to foreign domination since no one else could get
the $. Consequently, Philip II had to declare Spain bankrupt several times
because of the wars.
*The Short Term Causes of the Reformation*
- John Wycliffe à (1320 – 1384) was an
English reformer who argued that the Church was becoming too remote from the
people and advocated for simplification of its doctrines and less power for the
priests. He believed that only the Scriptures declared the will of God and
questioned transubstantiation, the ability of the priests to perform a
miracle turning the wine and bread into Christ’s blood and body. His views were
branded heretical, but he was able to survive in hiding though his remains were
dug up by the Church in 1428 and burned. He left an underground movement called
the Lollards who faced constant persecution.
- Jan Hus à (1369 – 1415) was a
Bohemian who argued that priests weren’t a holy group, claiming instead that
the Church was made up of all of the faithful. He questioned
transubstantiation, and said that the priest and the people should all have
both the wine and the bread. He was burned at the stake in 1415, but his
followers, led by Zizka, raised an army and won against the emperor, who
let them to set up their own church (the Utraquist Church) in which both the
wine and bread were eaten by all.
- The Avignon Exile and Great Schism à were both events that greatly undermined both the power and prestige of
the Church, and made many people begin to question its holiness and the
absolute power of the Papacy. People realized that the Church was a human
institution with its own faults.
- The Printing Press à before the invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s, many
people didn’t have access to information or changes in religious thought except
through word of mouth and the village viellées. With the printing press,
new ideas, and the dissatisfaction with the church, could spread quickly, and
people could read the Bible for themselves.
*The Long Term Causes of the Reformation*
- The growth in the
power of the secular king and the decrease in the power of the Pope.
- The popular discontent with the seemingly empty
rituals of the Church.
- The movement towards more personal ways of
communicating with God, called lay piety.
- The fiscal crisis in the Church that led to
corruption and abuses of power – IMPORTANT!
*Abuses of Church Power*
- Simony à the sale of Church positions, which quickly led to people becoming
Church officials purely for economic motives, and not for spiritual ones.
- Indulgences à the sale of
indulgences was the biggest moneymaker for the Church. When a person paid for
an indulgence, it supposedly excused the sins they had committed (the more $,
the more sins forgiven) even without them having to repent. Indulgences could even
be bought for future sins not yet committed and for others, especially those
who had just died, and were supposed to make a person’s passage into heaven
faster.
- Dispensations à payments that
released a petitioner from the requirements of the canon law.
- Incelebacy à church officials
getting married and having children.
- Pluralism à having more than one
position at a time.
- Nepotism à control by a
particular family.
*The Definition of the Reformation*
- The Reformation was the final splitting of the
Western Church into two halves.
- The two branches of the Church were Catholicism
and Protestantism.
*Martin Luther*
- Luther (1483 – 1546) was born into a middle class
family in Saxony, Germany. He got a good education and began studying law. After
almost being hit by lightning, he decided to become a monk.
- As a monk, he became obsessed with his own
sinfulness, and pursued every possible opportunity to earn worthiness in God’s
eyes (for example, self-flagellation) but he was still not satisfied, for he
felt that God would never forgive a sinner like himself.
- Finally, he had an intense religious experience
that led him to realize that justification in the eyes of God was based on
faith alone and not on good works and sacraments.
- Then, in 1517, he saw a friar named Johann
Tetzel peddling indulgences and claiming that by buying them, people could save
themselves time in the purgatory. Since he said that by buying the indulgences,
people could excuse sins, people were coming to buy the indulgences in droves.
This outraged Luther, and on October 31st, 1517 he posted his Ninety-Five
Theses on the church door.
- The theses explained that the Pope could remit
only the penalties he or canon law imposed, and that for other sins, the
faithful had only to sincerely repent to obtain an indulgence, not pay the
Church.
-
The theses made the profits from the indulgences drop off, and angered the
order that supported Tetzel. Luther and the rival monks began to have
theological discussions, which were at first ignored.
-
But, by 1520 Luther had written three radical pamphlets:
*The Diet of Worms*
- Luther’s writings could no longer be ignored,
and, in 1520, Pope Leo the Fifth excommunicated him, and Luther responded by
calling the Pope an anti-Christ. So, Charles the Fifth ordered him to offer his
defense against the decree at a Diet of the Empire at Worms.
- At Worms, Luther refused to retract his
statements, asking to be proved wrong with the Bible. So, Charles ordered that
Luther be arrested and his works burned, but Prince Frederick of Saxony came to
Luther’s aid and allowed Luther to hide in his castle. There, Luther
established the Lutheran doctrines.
*Lutheran Doctrine and Practice*
- Codified in the Augsburg Confession the
Lutheran beliefs are as follows:
1.
Justification by faith alone, or the belief that faith alone, without the
sacraments or good works, leads to an individual’s salvation.
*The Appeal of Protestantism*
- Appeal to the peasants:
- Appeal to the nobles:
- Appeal to the middle class:
*Other Forms of Protestantism*
- Zwingli à (1484 – 1531) had
beliefs very similar to Luther, except that he believed that NONE of the
sacraments bestowed grace, and that they were purely symbolic. He also felt
that for people to lead godly lives, they had to be constantly disciplined and
threatened – Calvinism without predestination.
- Radicals à many radical sects
broke out, and after Munster (where a sect called the Melchiorties gained
political control of the city and began to establish a heavenly Jerusalem on
earth) they were all persecuted. Since some believed that Baptism should only
be administered to adults who asked to be baptized, they were all called the Anabaptists
(rebaptisers).
- Calvin à (1509 – 1564) formed the second wave of the Reformation. Though
Lutheranism and Calvinism both believed in people’s sinfulness, salvation by
faith alone, that all people were equal in God’s eyes and that people should
follow existing political authority, Calvin believed in predestination
or the concept that God, being all knowing, already knows if a person is going
to go to heaven and become part of the elect or not. Though behavior on earth
technically had no effect on the decision, it was established that moral people
tended to be part of the elect. Calvinist communities were model places, with
very strict moral codes that were vehemently imposed. The church and its
doctrines were also very well defined in the Institutes of the Christian
Religion and all Calvinists were supposed to make their communities worthy
of the future elect.
*Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)*
- Queen Elizabeth was a skillful queen who was very
able to sense the mood of her people, and very good at using propaganda to
promote her image.
- She was a very successful queen, and the only
issue she left unresolved was the question of succession. However, at the last
minute, her Scottish cousin James I was chosen.
*James I (1603 –
1625)*
- In 1603, James took
over and was greeted eagerly as he traveled from Scotland to London. However,
both the religious controversy and the conflict between the king and Parliament
were unresolved, and soon began to cause trouble for the new king.
- James was a complete believer in divine right
monarchy or the belief that that kings rule by divine right and should have
absolute power. He believed Parliament was unnecessary.
- Millenary Petition à petition given to
James as soon as he reached the capital signed by 1,000 churchmen which asked
James to move the Anglican Church further away from Catholicism (no popery, no
bishops) and to simply and “purify” the services instead. James responded by
saying simply, “No bishop, no King,” because he felt that the bishops, as
traditional figures of authority should stay, since otherwise people could also
begin questioning his authority.
- Gunpowder Plot à plot by Catholics to
assassinate king and Parliament whose discovery raised a lot of anti-Catholic
sentiment in England.
- Foreign Policy under James I à James wisely kept
England out of the Thirty Years War (though this made some Englishmen unhappy
since it was seen as a failure to support the Protestant cause) and he even
tried to make peace with Spain by attempting to marry his son, Charles I, to a
Spanish princess (which enraged the public). However, the Spanish turned
Charles I down, which sparked a conflict. Instead, Charles was married to
Henrietta Marie of France, another Catholic. But, just as the war against Spain
began, James died and Charles took over.
*Charles I (1625 – 1649)*
- Though Charles was sure that the war would unite the
country under his leadership, it actually provided Parliament with more
opportunities to force him to make concessions, since he needed to tax to
support the war and Parliament’s approval was needed for new taxation.
- Several Parliaments were called and dissolved in
rapid succession for the king was unwilling to concede on the issue of
Buckingham. Finally, in 1628, Parliament had enough of the king’s behavior (he
was illegally forcing loans from people in order to avoid relying on Parliament
for $) and decided to draw up a petition stating their traditional rights.
- The Petition of Right à passed in 1628
(Charles simply agreed to be able to get more $), it stated the rights of
Parliament, such as:
- Though Charles accepted the Petition, in reality,
like his father, he was an absolutist.
- Next, Parliament moved to impeach Buckingham,
which the king objected to, so he dissolved Parliament. The duke was then
assassinated, and the king called the Parliament back into session expecting
more cooperation. Parliament, however, was angry because, under his wife’s
influence, Charles had begun to favor the High Church and not enforce the laws
against popery.
- So, in 1629, Parliament tried to enact laws
against Catholics to reverse the drift towards the High Church. Charles was
unable to stop them since he was in desperate need of $ to support the war
against Spain, but he finally decided to dismiss Parliament, and sent word to
the Speaker of the House of Commons, who was supposed to immediately give up
his chair. Instead, the infuriated members of the House forced the speaker back
into the chair and passed three quick anti-Catholic resolutions.
- Charles was enraged and dissolved Parliament,
swearing he would never call another one.
- So, for 11 years Charles attempted to rule
completely w/out Parliament. Since Parliament had no way to call itself back
into session, the only weapon it had against Charles was public opinion.
- Because of four events, public opinion gradually
shifted towards Parliament. The events were:
- Since putting down the rebellion required $,
Charles was forced to call Parliament.
- Short Parliament à because the
Parliament demanded concessions, it was quickly dissolved.
- Long Parliament à again, Charles was
forced to call a Parliament, and although most of his opponents from the Short
Parliament were reelected, he was forced to pass the following to get $:
- Just as the Parliament was getting ready to
impeach the queen, Charles had enough and entered the chamber with a section of
the army to arrest the leaders, but they had already left. This began a civil
war. Charles’ last chance for peace was to sign the 19 Propositions, which
would state Parliament’s superiority, but he refused to sign, so civil war
began!
*Civil War*
- The civil war consisted of two phases, which were
as follows:
*England Under Cromwell*
- Cromwell executed the king in 1649, saying he was
not to be trusted, and then purged Parliament of all dissenters (600 à 60 people, called
Romp Parliament) which got him firmly in control.
- Cromwell soon became a military dictator, and he
divided England into 12 military districts that were ruled by martial law.
However, he was unable to make any lasting changes.
- He was far ahead of his time in his religious
toleration (which was limited, since it didn’t include Catholics and Anglicans,
but was still remarkable for the time) but did not believe in democratic rule.
- Levellers à faction that wanted
all people to vote.
- Diggers à faction that wanted
all people to vote and wanted to share all the wealth equally.
- Cromwell disagreed with both the levellers and
the diggers.
- After Cromwell died, his son Richard was unable
to maintain power so Charles II was summoned back from France and the monarchy
was restored.
*Charles II (1660 – 1685)*
-
Nicknamed “The Merry Monarch” Charles II was very easygoing and had no problem
with compromising with Parliament. After the interregnum both parties were
eager to compromise.
- The Treaty of Dover à in 1670, Charles II
secretly signed the treaty with France. The treaty stated that, in exchange for
military support (against the Dutch) and $, Charles would try to convert
England back to Catholicism and to convert back to Catholicism himself.
- The Declaration of Indulgence à in 1672, w/out
consulting Parliament, Charles issued a Declaration of Indulgence, in which he
promised not to enforce the laws against Catholics and the non-Conformists
(they were simply included to mask Charles’ pro-Catholic sentiment). Parliament
saw through the trick, however, and demanded that the king retract the
declaration, which he did.
- Test Act à in response,
Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673, which prohibited anyone who had not had
an Anglican communion from entering into the army or public service. The law
was aimed at excluding Catholics. Charles allowed the law to be passed, but his
used his powers of dispensation to sneak some Catholics into public service
anyhow.
*James II (1685 – 1688)*
- Before James became king, a rebellion caused by
the Popish Plot (a hoax that stated that there was going to be an assassination
of Charles II to bring James II, a Catholic, to the throne, and that James was
going to convert the country back) called the Monmouth Rebellion occurred,
which was easily put down. Public opinion of James was still high, though
James’ brutal handling of the rebels after they were caught somewhat angered
and worried the public.
- The first thing James II did was to immediately
declare that he was a Catholic and that he was going to try to convert the
country back to Catholicism (what a moron). He also, stupidly enough, revealed
the details of the Treaty of Dover.
-
Next, he tried to romanize (convert back to Catholicism) Oxford and Cambridge,
as well as the army. He romanized the army using his powers of dispensation,
and he did so because he felt that the only real source of power was the army,
and in order to control the army, he knew he needed to have Catholic, not
Protestant, officers.
- Finally, he passed a Declaration of Indulgence
that was ignored, so he passed another law forcing every bishop to read it in
church. Seven bishops, however, refused to obey, and they were put on trial,
and found not guilty (to the king’s astonishment and anger).
- Still, after all James’ stupidity, Parliament was
still reluctant to revolt since they remembered what had happened last time and
did not want to repeat the same mistake. Also, since James was getting old and
his three daughters were Protestants, they figured that he would die soon and
England would once again have a Protestant ruler.
- However, James’ wife became pregnant, which was a
miracle at her age, and actually gave birth to a healthy baby boy –
something that totally changed the scene for Parliament (Oh No!). Parliament,
knowing it had to act right away, asked William of Orange (married to Mary,
daughter of James) to invade and take over, which he did. The king fled w/out a
fight as his top general, John Churchill, deserted him the night before the
battle and joined the other side.
*The Glorious Revolution*
- So, in 1688, William and Mary take over as
comonarchs. William of Orange, the leader of the Dutch who is fighting the
French, was so thankful to be able to take over England because of its military
strength that he did not mind being a limited, not an absolute, monarch.
- Then, Parliament passes the Bill of Rights
a statement that, once and for all, establishes Parliament’s supremacy. Also,
to please William, Parliament finally passes the Act of Toleration.
*Definition of the Scientific Revolution*
- The Scientific Revolution (1543 – 1687) was a
period of time in which many breakthrough discoveries were made in science and
philosophy, as well as an era in which the Europeans’ perception of the
universe and their role in it was changed forever.
- Although the SR began by only affecting the
scientific and intellectual elite (5 % of the population or so) the concepts
that originated during the SR eventually spread to all of the population.
*Science Before the Scientific Revolution*
- Prior to the SR, all scientific concepts came
from either the Bible or ancient scientists. Since, during the Middle Ages,
most of the works of other ancient scientists were lost, Aristotle, Ptolemy,
and Galen became the only, and therefore ultimate, authorities, on their
fields. The old beliefs came from:
*Causes of the Scientific Revolution*
- One cause was that scientists were simply
beginning to take note of the inadequacies of the standard theories, and,
although they greatly preferred to make slight changes to the theories (vs.
abandoning them) some scientists were beginning to question the old
authorities.
- Still, it is unlikely that the scientists would
have challenged the established theories without the influence of the other
ancient scientists, especially Archimedes, (who were rediscovered during the
Renaissance due to the humanists’ efforts to find ancient works) that disagreed
with the old theories.
- Another influence was the interest in what is now
regarded as magic, but was then seen as serious science. These branches of
science included alchemy and astrology, and were linked by the belief that the
world could be understood through several secret truths (like Neoplatonism).
These sciences contributed to the outpouring of new ideas, the questioning of
the old theories, and the use of math.
- Lastly, the European interest in technology both
stimulated and made possible the SR. New instruments and devices (printing press,
telescope, vacuum pump, thermometer, barometer and microscope), often made for
other purposes, were used in science and made possible many of the new
discoveries. The interest in technology was actually stimulated by the
competition between the different nations b/c applied technology was used in
warfare.
*The Major Scientific Discoveries*
- Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) à was a Polish priest
and astronomer who shook the foundations of European beliefs. He challenged
Ptolemy’s system simply because it was too complex and he felt that
there had to be a better system mathematically. So, based on mathematics, he
developed a new, sun-centered system that placed earth as the third planet
rotating around the sun. This system eventually ended up requiring complex
mathematics as well, but Copernicus was a great mathematician who easily
defended his theory. Copernicus even began developing the concept of gravity,
for he stated that large masses have their own attractive forces.
However, he kept the crystalline spheres and did not account for the stars. His
major work was The Revolution of Heavenly Bodies (1543 – start of
scientific revolution), which, fearing the Church, he did not publish until his
deathbed. The book sparked a major controversy, but, because of the Church, it
was dangerous to express Copernican views openly.
- Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600) à though Bruno did not actually develop any additionally theories, he
made the mistake of openly supporting Copernicus and ridiculing the old philosophy.
The church arrested him, and after his refusal to recant, burned him at the
stake, making him a lesson for others.
- Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601) à stargazer who
meticulously recorded star data for years.
- Johann Kepler (1571 – 1630) à a brilliant mathematician
who developed the first theories of motion. With the aid of Brahe’s star data
(which he acquired since he was Brahe’s assistant), Kepler came of with the
theory that the planets moved in ellipses, and that they did not move at a
steady rate. Instead, as they came closer to the sun, they accelerated, and
they slowed down as they moved away. So, Kepler’s First Law of Motion stated
that the planets moved in elliptical orbits, and his Second Law stated that the
planets sweep though an equal area of space in an equal amount of time.
- Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) à was the first
scientist to use the telescope. With the telescope, he saw Jupiter’s moons (the
existence of which proved that not everything orbited the earth, as was
previously thought) and the craters on the moon (which proved that heaven was
not perfect). Based on his observations, Galileo concluded that the principles
of terrestrial physics could be applied to the heavens as well. In 1610, he
wrote the Starry Messenger and subsequently got in trouble with the
Spanish Inquisition, which stated that it was not allowed to openly support
Copernicus. So, in 1632, he wrote the Dialogue on the Two Great World
Systems (supposedly a work of fiction, but obviously supported Copernicus).
But this did not fool the church, for they forced him to recant in 1633 and
made him spend the last years of his life under house arrest. There, he
developed his Theory of Inertia, which stated that things in motion
remain in motion unless acted upon by another force (implies that God is not
necessary to move planets), which he published in The Two New Sciences in
1638. Galileo is really considered to be the first modern scientist, for he
developed the scientific method of experimentation and was one of the first mechanists
(how, not why).
- Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) à brought to a climax
all the previous works in his masterpiece, The Principia, which
described three laws of motion (in the absence of force, motion continues in a
straight line; the rate of change of the motion is determined by the forces
acting on it; action and reaction between two bodies are equal and opposite)
and a law of universal gravitation (which applied the concept of gravity
to both the earth and the heavens). Newton also supported observation and
experimentation, and helped further develop the scientific method.
*The New Epistemologies*
- The SR allowed many new epistemologies (theories
of knowledge) to develop. First, the belief in mechanism, which stated
that scientists should question how (not why) things worked, became more
widespread, especially through Galileo and Newton. The opposite philosophy to
mechanism is teleology, which stated that everything is made for a
purpose, and was used by Aristotle.
- Mainly, however, the discoveries helped the
scientific method develop. The scientific method, which was a new theory on how
to obtain and verify knowledge, stressed experience, reason, and doubt and
rejected all unsubstantiated authority. The scientific method revolutionized
science, and made measurement of data, and mathematics, essential parts of
science. From the SR onwards, science was based on pure fact – the acquisition
of data and the testing of theories.
-
The scientific method was actually a combination of two theories of knowledge:
1.
Empiricism (a.k.a. induction) à was advocated by Francis
Bacon (who wrote New Atlantis a description of an ideal society
based on science) and supported going from particular knowledge (observation)
to general knowledge.
2.
Rationalism (a.k.a. deduction) à was advocated by Rene
Descartes (who wrote the Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting
the Reason and Seeking Truth in the Sciences) who stated that senses can
lie and that the only way to find truth was to start from one fact, which
was “I am doubting” and proceed to deduce all other statements – “I think,
therefore I am.” Descartes also stated that there was an essential divide
between the world of thought and reality (tangible objects). In other words, he
took Bacon’s statement that religion (faith) and science (fact) should be
separate and turned it into a far-reaching divide between the reality of the
world and our perception of it – i.e. The Matrix!
*The
Famous Empiricists*
-
Empiricism was a very influential epistemology, and soon, it was beginning to
be applied to other fields, not just science. Actually, several individuals
used empiricism to develop political theories.
-
Thomas Hobbes à was a radical Nominalist
who stated that there are no abstract ideas. Therefore, he was also an
atheist (since God is an abstract idea – he must not exist). He also did not
believe in abstract good or evil. Instead, in his Pleasure-Pain Philosophy
he stated that, since abstract good and evil do not exist, the only good things
are ones that bring one pleasure and the only bad things are the ones that
bring one pain. Mainly, however, Hobbes used empiricism to develop a political
system. Because, according to him, in the state of nature (w/out any
authority) there would be a constant war of all-against-all b/c of competition,
diffidence (fear), and vain glory (desire to show off). Nobody could ever win
the war, for, although a law of nature exists which states that if
you want respect then respect others, people, the terrible beings that they
are, will break the agreement to get what they want unless there is an outside
authority enforcing the law. So, the only solution, Hobbes writes in his
masterpiece, The Leviathan (1651) is ABSOLUTE MONARCHY! Hobbes’ absolute
monarchy is not based on divine right, but, instead, it is based on a social
contract (an agreement between the people and their ruler) in which the
people agree that, since anything is better than the war of all-against-all,
they will give up their natural rights to the government in exchange for protection.
So, the government is all-powerful, but, in theory, they will never need to
actually use their power, it is only a threat.
-
John Locke à the next significant
empiricist, he was somewhat a reaction to Hobbes’ negativity. Locke began with
the assumption that, at birth, each person is born with a tabula rasa
(blank slate) and that all human nature and knowledge comes from either direct
experience or from reflection. Therefore, since all beliefs come from
experience, all beliefs are open to criticism (this was one of the most
powerful arguments for equality and tolerance yet). Clearly, Locke was a great
supporter of equality, toleration, and education (make good environments).
Locke also used his ideas to write a social contract, like Hobbes. Locke’s social
contract, however, as stated in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690)
and Two Treatises of Government (1689), had almost nothing in common
with Hobbes. Locke stated that, in the state of nature, people are neutral,
since it all depends on the environment. Based on this, he said that, at birth,
each person has certain inalienable rights of life, liberty and
property. Since people must be forced to respect e/others rights,
government is formed, to protect the rights. In his contract, government must
protect peoples’ rights, but not more, and the people must obey the government
so long as it does not do more than necessary. If it does, people have the
right to rebel and establish another government. The Declaration of
Independence is pretty much just paraphrasing JL’s beliefs.
-
David Hume à was the dead end of end of
empiricism. He stated that there can’t be any absolute knowledge if everything
is based on the senses. So, people can know things through common sense, but
not through philosophy (which he says is a joke) and he hates dogma.
*The
Effects of the Scientific Revolution*
-
People felt that human understanding of the universe could be reduced to
mathematical laws.
-
The universe was no longer appeared to be a mystery. In fact, people felt that
it was orderly, rational, and, most importantly, could be understood by humans.
-
People felt that humans were able to control their own destiny.
-
The concept of natural laws developed. These laws, which were similar to
the laws found in science by Newton, could govern other aspects of life as
well, such as economics, politics, or ethics.
-
Science gained wider appeal and unprecedented popularity. Additionally, science
was institutionalized, and scientific societies sprung up throughout Europe, on
both the national and personal level. The institutions greatly helped the rate
of progress.
-
Positive effects of the SciRev à gain of knowledge, greater
toleration (both religious and scientific), less superstition and more
scientific answers, and freedom to deviate from established theories, which
opened the door for new, further developments.
-
Negative effects of the SciRev à loss of innocence, loss of
traditional faith, loss of faith in heaven, earth is no longer regarded as the
center (God’s pet project), skepticism, loss of personal/caring God.
- Overall, however, the SR was an era of
optimism that gave way to an Age of Reason in the 18th century. People
living during the SR felt that they had surpassed even the ancients and were at
the peak of human knowledge, and ideas of progress dominated intellectual
discussions.
*The Arts During the Scientific Revolution*
- Mannerism à a reaction to the
glorification of humans seen in the Renaissance, Mannerism featured distorted
human figures, strange perspectives and unnatural colors and lighting.
Mannerism reached its peak during the instability of the Reformation, and it
reflected the concerns of a troubled time. The major Mannerist painter was El
Greco (1541 – 1614).
- Baroque à a reaction to
Mannerism, the Baroque style occurred during the Counter Reformation, and it
reflected the desire for grandeur and the wish to inspire and awe people with
God’s greatness. A famous baroque painter was Caravaggio (1571 – 1610)
whose paintings were famous for their depictions of highly emotional moments.
Other famous baroque painters were Rubens (1577 – 1640), and Veláquez
(1599 – 1660), who glorified church figures and rulers. Bernini, a
baroque sculptor and architect, did the inside and outside of St. Peter’s
Cathedral in Rome.
- Classicism à like Baroque,
Classicism attempted to awe the viewer. However, like the Renaissance, it
attempted to awe the viewer with form and discipline – also they wished to
return to ancient values. Big guy was Poussin whose paintings were more
subdued than the baroque guys (he liked togas).
- The Dutch à b/c of Protestantism
and republicanism, Dutch art was less religious (if religious only personal
faith, not that of Church obviously) and more precise b/c big buyers were
bourgeoisie (merchants not dumb nobles). Big dude was Rembrandt who
pretty much just painted pictures of himself (pretty conceited, but really was
just fascinated by human character and lighting).
- Monteverdi à invented concept of
opera and orchestra, after many new instruments were invented. His masterpiece
was Orfeo (1607).
*The Literature During the Scientific Revolution*
- Michel de Montaigne à invented the essay (what did he have to do that for?); influenced by skepticism
(“What do I know?”) which eventually led to search for self-knowledge (“Know
thyself”) and his belief that acting righteously is more important than
following doctrine (sometimes).
- Cervantes à wrote Don Quixote,
which illustrated the wide gaps between rich and poor and the difference between
reality and fantasy of his time by poking fun at society and politics (he
thought that politics disregarded human values).
- Shakespeare à wrote plays that
made timeless statements about human behavior and covered a very wide range of
topics and emotions. However, his plays also reflected his time as death,
turmoil and change were always present. Also, the vigor in his plays showed the
sense of achievement that also characterized the 1500s (don’t ask what
achievements, please!).
- Corneille à was the dominant
French playwright of the 1600s whose work reflects the rise of classicism. At
first, he refused to follow the three new set rules for drama (unity of time,
location and plot). His masterpiece was Le Cid (1636) which was
condemned by Richelieu b/c it did not follow the three rules. But, Le Cid
was still very popular.
- Racine à the model classical dramatist who still generated very emotional stuff.
*Social Patterns and Popular Culture During the
Scientific Revolution*
- Population decreased after the 16th century. In
the 17th century, population began to rise again, leading to overcrowding in
the cities, bigger armies, increased crime, more taxation (but food prices
didn’t rise = bad for peasants), and beggars (not enough food for peasants).
- Also, during the SciRev, social status became
mobile because it became based on wealth and education as opposed to family
heritage. The emphasis on education led to a higher literacy rate, which led to
the start of newspapers and book sales. Woman also gained opportunities (in
business).
- In the East, peasants were reduced to serfdom,
and in the West, many were forced to go into the cities in search of a job
(leading to chaos @ cities) and village unity decreased b/c of increased
population and national intervention for law enforcement (intendants).
- In the village, ancient traditions held fast, for
example, the belief in magic and the yearly festivals such as Charivari. Like
Calvinism, villagers felt they couldn’t control their own destiny (unlike SciRev,
the beliefs of which had not spread to the village yet), which led to witch
hunts that eventually subsided when the SciRev and Counter Reformation (b/c now
better educated priests who knew what the hell – get it – they were talking
about) spread to the village.
*Absolutism in France under Louis XIV*
-
Louis XIV, a.k.a. the Sun King, was the next threat to universal absolute
monarchy.
- Born in 1638, he ruled from 1643 – 1715. His rule
had three phases:
*Louis XIV’s Internal Policies*
- Versailles à isolated location of
Louis XIV’s palace. Versailles was the great trap dedicated to the taming
of the aristocracy. Effectively, it drew the nobles away from their affairs
and kept them close to Louis XIV. Versailles was a constant party, so nobody
wanted to leave. Louis XIV, however, knew how to balance work w/party so he was
a good ruler, unlike his successors and the foreign rulers who tried to emulate
him. Versailles was also the center of French culture.
-
Louis attempted to strengthen the economy by making reforms (which he later
ignored b/c he needed instant $ for wars) by stimulating manufacturing,
agriculture, and trade. He also tried to reduce the effect of France’s internal
toll, and tried to boost overseas trade.
- Louis XIV wanted to unify the country and
keep his control over it, which he attempted to do by:
*Louis XIV’s Foreign Policies*
- Louis made very good use of his contrasting
advisers, which helped him greatly @ foreign policy.
- Colbert à one of Louis’
advisers who regarded the Netherlands as France’s biggest enemy b/c of their
mercantilist policies. Therefore, he felt that all the taxes should go to
building up a navy to fight the Netherlands, who tended to dominate the
overseas trade routes.
- Louvois à other adviser, who
emphasized the army b/c he felt that France was threatened by land.
- First, Louis listened to Colbert, and fought the
Dutch. When this war (1672 – 1678) failed, Louis turned to Louvois and began
land wars. The result was that France was able to annex a lot of territory,
until the other countries ganged up on him b/c of the balance of power.
- Grand Alliance à league formed
against Louis headed by Leopold I (HRE) and William III
(Netherlands/England). The league went to war against Louis @ 1688.
- When Louis began to lose his territories he chose
to seek peace and get rid of Louvois. But the peace didn’t last long, for, in
1690, the War of the Spanish Succession began.
-
The War of the Spanish Succession à was a war to gain the
Spanish throne for Louis’ family. The previous king had actually chosen Philip
(Louis XIV’s grandson), and his wishes might have been respected had Louis
promised to open Spain to trade and not unify France and Spain under one ruler.
Since he didn’t agree to do so, the Grand Alliance declared war on him in 1701.
Louis was defeated, but at the Peace of Utrecht in 1713 he still was able to
secure the throne for his grandson though he couldn’t unify the country and had
to open Spain to trade. Mainly, the war was a waste of $ and an additional on
France’s already strained economy.
*France after Louis XIV*
- After Louis’ death in 1715 the duke of Orléans
served as reagent (until 1723). The duke was committed to giving power back to
the aristocracy, so he restored the parlements to power (he gave them the power
to veto royal laws, a power they would never relinquish) and replaced royal
bureaucrats w/nobles. On the financial side, a brilliant financier named John
Law tried to solve the $ crisis w/ government banks, but the scheme failed.
A positive change was that the peasants were never again to be oppressed as
they were under Louis XIV (not by much though) b/c government realized that in
order to be successful, need mass support.
- After the duke, Louis XV gave almost unlimited
authority to his tutor and adviser, Cardinal Fleury, who was a cautious,
dedicated man. During Fleury’s time, France began to recover: harvests were
abundant, population grew, and commerce boomed.
- The problems that had plagued the reign of Louis
XIV, however, were not solved, and when Fleury died in 1743 the pressures
exploded. France was plunged into stupid wars that ruined the economy and Louis
XV, having nobody to replace Fleury, placed his confidence in several advisers,
most of which were incompetent. Louis XV was uninterested in government, and he
neglected his work! So, the problems went w/out solving, and only got worse.
*Absolutism in Austria under the Hapsburgs*
- Leopold I à ruler of the HRE
(but really Austria) who established a court similar to Louis XIV’s Versailles
at Schonbrunn. Although Leopold only had control over Bohemia, Austria, and a
small part of Hungary, he still had considerable authority.
- Unlike Louis, however, Leopold relied on the Privy
Council, a group of leading nobles, to devise policy and run his
government. After consulting w/them, he would come to a final decision. Since
Leopold gave the nobles influence in the government w/out first establishing
control over their lands, the nobles were far more autonomous, so, though
Leopold had less power, he had more support.
- Since members of the Austrian court did not
necessarily have to be Austrian, some great foreigners came to power, such as Prince
Eugene (1663 – 1736), who volunteered to serve the Austrians in the war
w/the Turks. Since he was very talented, he became field marshal and had a
decisive influence on Hapsburg affairs b/c he transformed their military
policies from defensive to aggressive. Eugene led the Austrians as they laid
the foundations for a new empire of Austria-Hungary.
Part III 2006-07 AP European History
- Charles VI (r. 1711 – 1740) à was Leopold’s
successor, whose major problem was that he had no male heir. In 1713 he drafted
the Pragmatic Sanction, which stated that all Hapsburg lands would pass
intact to the heir regardless of who it was. He forced all the major powers to
sign the PS.
- Maria Theresa à was Charles’
daughter, who was heir to the throne in 1740. MT was in a difficult position,
for not only had Charles had left her w/an empty treasury, a poorly trained
army and an ineffective bureaucracy, but she also faced a rebellion by the
Czech nobles in Bohemia, and the Hungarian nobles were ready to follow suit.
So, MT went around to the nobles and appealed to them as a damsel in distress.
Though she was also forced to promise the Hungarians autonomy (w/in empire),
the plan still worked wonders. But MT also faced other nations, who didn’t
respect the PS.
- The War of Austrian Succession (1740 –
1748) à The French (to help Bavaria claim the Hapsburg throne), Spain (hoped to
win back control of Austria’s Italian possessions), and Prussia (took Silesia)
gang up on Austria. Only England supports Austria (BOP), but b/c of MT’s
brilliant tactics, Austria was able to fight to a stalemate and only gave up
Silesia.
- Maria Theresa’s State Building Policies à MT was a moralistic
and pious woman who was still a very brilliant ruler. She believed in the
divine mission of the Hapsburgs, and was ready to defend her country. First,
she reformed the church by forbidding the founding of new monasteries
(they were wasteful) and abolishing the clergy’s exemptions from taxes! Next,
she established a new bureaucracy in Vienna by appointing new local
officials and reorganizing the central ministries. The new bureaucracy helped
her collect taxes. Lastly, she improved the military and its
training.
*Absolutism in Prussia under the Hohenzollerns*
- In Brandenburg-Prussia, state building was once
again made possible through an alliance between the ruler and the nobles. The
nobility saw that they could get serfs and consolidate their power on their
lands, and the elector saw that he could build a strong state. The nobles
created very efficient, profitable estates, and were known as Junkers.
- Frederick William (r. 1648 – 1688) à a.k.a. the Great
Elector. Realizing that other states were swarming over his possessions at
will, he built a good army, which he used to impose order and to gain territory
(w/out actually using the army, just through intimidation). In domestic policy,
FW got rid of the Diet of Brandenburg (it actually got rid of itself as it gave
FW the power to raise taxes w/out its consent in 1653), established the War
Chest, which financed the army and collect government revenue, and placed the
implementation of policies in the hands of war commissars. FW quickly
intimidated his only sources of resistance, the cities, w/the army, and
established his control.
- Frederick III (r. 1688 – 1713) à unlike his father,
he enjoyed court society and made Berlin into a cultural center with a lively
court and an Academy of Sciences. He also effectively gained Prussian
independence by asking Leopold to make him a king in exchange for his army (for
war of Spanish succession). After gaining independence, Frederick changed his
name to Frederick I.
- Frederick William I (r. 1713 – 1740) à was a Spartan ruler
who disdained court society and concentrated on the army. He built up the army
(38,000 à 83,000 men) by instituting a form of conscription. He took great care
of the army and drilled it incessantly. As a result, he had a fantastic army
that he could use to intimidate other powers (he actually never fought wars
w/it). On the domestic side, FW created the General Directory of Finance,
War and Domains, which took over in 1723 all government functions except
justice, education and religion. FW made education compulsory, but did not
really enforce the rules.
- Frederick II (r. 1740 – 1786) à a.k.a. Frederick the
Great, he was trained for kingship by his father and had a fierce sense of
duty. He realized only absolute rule could bring results, so he used his
absolute power to reach objectives. Immediately, he was able to establish
religious toleration and judicial reform, but his main goal, security, was more
difficult to accomplish. To gain security, Frederick knew that he had to
acquire new, stronger borders, and he began the process of gaining territory in
1740 when he attacked the Hapsburg’s province of Silesia, which the
Hapsburgs couldn’t defend. In the War of Austrian Succession that
followed, Frederick was able to keep Silesia.
*Absolutism
in Spain under Hapsburgs/Bourbons*
- After Philip IV the throne went to Charles
II, a sickly man incapable of having children. Spain had a relatively weak
monarchy, for the nobles controlled the regime, and Spain’s dominions had been
reduced by the war of Spanish succession (Netherlands + Italy à Austria).
- After the war of Spanish Succession, however, the
Bourbons gained control of the crown, and they ended the traditional independence
of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia and created a united Spain. The Bourbons also
established the office of the intendant in Spain, which helped curb the
nobles.
- Count Pedro de Campomanes à liberal reformer in
Spain during the Bourbon rule that, among other things, expelled the Jesuits
b/c he felt they were too powerful and opposed to reform.
*Absolutism
in Russia under Peter the Great*
- Peter (the Great Westernizer) was born in 1672,
and, when he was three, his father Tsar Alexis (Romanov) died and his
half-brother from an earlier marriage (from Miloslavsky family à old believers in the
Russian Orthodox Church) took over, called Fedor. After Fedor died, there was
the question of succession – was it to be Ivan (dumb, older son) or Peter
(brilliant, younger son)?
- So, Sophie (Peter’s brilliant half-sister)
organized the Streltsy, a group of conservative soldiers w/nothing to
do, and removes Peter and his mother (from Naryshkin family à westernized) sending
them to Preobrazhusky (place filled w/foreigners) where Peter learns
Western ways.
- In 1689, Peter goes back to Moscow and overthrows
the government of Ivan (in name, but really it is Sophie) and becomes a
co-ruler w/Ivan.
- Peter’s Crash Course in Westernization à beginning in 1689 Peter
gives Russia a crash course in Western ways. He sent Russians to the West to
study, brought foreigners into Russia, forced men to shave (against Old
Believer rules, symbol of modernization), adopted Western court rituals and
founded an Academy of Sciences.
- In 1697, he went to the West himself undercover.
Peter was a giant, and he was also VERY intelligent, and he learned about
Western ways from the bottom up (shipbuilding, metallurgy, dentistry). When he
returned, he set up many factories w/serf labor.
- Peter’s Administration à in ruling, Peter
pretty much ignored Duma (advisory council) and concentrated on his
bureaucracy. He organized his administration into several departments each of
which either had a specialized function or took care of a region. He totally
subdued the nobles, and used coercion to make them listen to him (do this or
else!).
- Russian Society à Peter made a very
clear dividing line between peasants (had to pay poll tax, military
conscription, forced public work) and nobility (status in which was now based
on level in bureaucracy and not family). Result was more controlled social
order + more uniformity.
- Though Peter was very intelligent, he was also
very barbaric, w/bad temper, and drank SO much! Hates religion, hates Streltsy,
and really hates Old Believers. When the Patriarch (Pope for Russian Orthodox
Church) dies, he simply does not replace him, and simply appoints a council
called the Synod to run church (he can control Synod). Also, he makes a
mock religion.
- On way back from Europe, Peter meets Augustus
the Strong, a Polish king, and they become best friends, and decide to
declare war on Sweden – they think “easy target” since the Swedish king just
died and there is a 12-year-old on the throne. Peter wants ports.
- Charles XII à Swedish king
MILITARY GENIUS! Obsessed w/war, very brilliant, great physical courage, very
willful, upright moral man, Lutheran, determined to fight to death if attacked,
but will not attack if not provoked.
- The Great Northern War à Charles crushes
Denmark, then scares Polish away from Riga (they were besieging it) and totally
beat Russians, who were besieging Narva. So, by 1700, Charles has really won,
but he still wants revenge, and chooses (big mistake) to go after Augustus
first (b/c Augustus didn’t declare war, which is sneaky and he thinks Russians
are pathetic). For 7 yrs Charles chases after Augustus and finally puts him in
jail. Now Charles attacks Peter, but now Peter is ready. Charles takes 35,000
men and invades Russia, and Russians use Scorched Earth Policy (retreat
and burn everything) so in INCREDIBLY harsh Russian winter of 1707-1708 the
Swedes freeze. So, in 1709 at Poltava the Russians win a crushing
victory and gain Baltic provinces as Window à West.
*The United Provinces*
- The UP’s were moving towards absolutism when William
III had the office of Stadholder (during the wars against Louis XIV), but
the Estates General soon reasserted themselves and ended the wars. Then,
William sought the English crown, but only w/the approval of the Estates and he
had to leave the representative assemblies for the two countries separate.
- When William died w/out hier, Antonius
Heinsius continued his policies, but the government was really controlled
by the Estates General. But the UP’s soon began to decline, for their trading
power and naval supremacy was surpassed by England.
- Dutch Society à in the UP’s, social
distinctions were less prominent and social mobility was easier. Also, instead
of ancient families of nobility, the UP’s were filled with merchants and mayors
– they were the most bourgeoisie state.
*Sweden*
- In Sweden, the nobles emerged from a long
struggle vs. the monarchy as the dominant force. During the reign of Charles
XI this was not a problem as Charles stayed out of Europe’s wars and was
able to conserve his resources and not rely on the nobility.
- His successor, Charles XII (little genius
kid) who r. 1697 – 1718, fought Poland and invaded Russia (maybe he wasn’t such
a genius after all) where he got his little butt kicked. Then, his neighbors
began taking over his lands, and the nobles took advantage of his absence to
reassert their power.
- So, Queen Ulrika was forced to accept a
constitution that gave the Riksdag (like Parliament) control over the country
and Stockholm became an elegant capital w/out many big political aspirations.
*Poland*
- Poland was the strongest contrast to the French
society, for it was so chaotic and not unified that it ceased to exist as a
state in the late 18th century. This chaos was a result of the complete
dominance of the nobility, which didn’t allow a centralized government to
form. Though there were some brilliant kings who still fought in wars (when
all nobles saw a threat they would unite and form an army under king), they could
exercise power once wars were over (since kings were elected).
- The crown, then, had no bureaucracy or funding,
so Poland still resembled a feudal kingdom.
*England*
- England was the model for a nonabsolutist regime.
Though Charles II was able to summon and dissolve Parliament, make
appointments in the bureaucracy, and had to sign all the laws, he no longer had
the Star Chamber, he couldn’t arrest Parliament leaders, and he couldn’t
add seats in the Commons. In effect, he also could no longer use dispensations
or raise $ w/out Parliament.
- Now, the gentry (wealthy local leaders w/out
titles of nobility – who the textbook is obsessed with) had control of
the government through Parliament (not through the monarch other countries).
- James II à successor of Charles
II who was a total moron (bull in the china shop). After a struggle for the
succession, which he won, James immediately announced his support for Catholics
(dumb move), and began to antagonize Parliament (dumb move again). So, after a
series of idiotic events, seven leaders of Parliament invited William III to
invade, and he did, and James II fled.
- The Glorious Revolution à William and Mary
(daughter of James) became co-monarchs in 1689. William was able to accept a
limited monarchy, and a Bill of Rights was passed, which determined
succession, defined Parliament’s powers, and established civil rights. An Act
of Toleration was passed, which put an end to religious persecution, and a Triennial
Act was passed, which stated that Parliament had to meet every three years.
William guided England into an aggressive foreign policy and greatly expanded
the central government. Unlike rulers before him, William saw his limits.
- England had already begun to develop a
multi-party system. One side was the Whigs who opposed royal power and
Catholicism. Their rivals, the Tories, favored the crown and wished for
a traditional and ceremonial Anglicanism. The Whigs controlled the government
form much of William’s ruler, and they supported his war vs. Louis XIV (b/c
Catholic and harbored James’ supporters). But, in 1700, the Tories won by
opposing the war. By 1702, they were at war again over the Spanish Succession,
and the Whigs were in control again. 1710 brought back the Tories, for the
English were sick of the war, and they persuaded Queen Anne (William’s
successor) to make peace at Utrecht in 1713. After Anne, George I (Hanover)
took over, as did the Whigs.
- England’s Economy à at the same time,
England was winning big time power in the navy and in the colonies, and it
surpassed France. A notable achievement was the making of the Bank of
England in 1694. The bank could raise $ for government and keep it for
people at favorable interest – first government bonds. London is now the
financial capital of the world. But, most Englishmen were untouched by the
boom, and the peasants still lived @ crappy conditions in village or city.
- English State Building à the process of
state-building continued during the Hanover time, and the bureaucracy grew as a
result of the wars. Luckily, in England, the upper classes paid taxes too, and
so they also supported the state building, not just the poor people (like
France).
- Since the 1st two Hanover kings (George I
and George II) couldn’t speak English well, Sir Robert Walpole pretty
much ran things. His major accomplishment was his good handling of the South
Sea Bubble Crash in 1720, a financial crash similar to the failure of John
Law’s scheme in France. Walpole kept England at peace and is often seen as the
1st prime minister. Walpole’s peaceful policies pleased large landlords
but angered merchants (feared growth of French commerce) who found leadership
in William Pitt, who wanted to get rid of France sea influence
(England’s destiny).
*Diplomacy and Warfare*
- During the 17th century international relations
became more impersonal and based on rational thought and less based on
relationships between kings. Gradually dynastic influences gave way to the
concept of the state. Leaders tried to shape their policies on reasons of state
– i.e. security.
- One principle at work was the Balance of Power
(BOP) – all powers agreed that it was best not to be dominated by one
state. The goal was to keep balance, and diplomats were not always honest and
were often deceitful in attaining their goals.
- In the armies and navies, the size, organization
and skill grew. So, there was less brutality. The idea of an unconditional
surrender was unheard of, and most battles took place for a specific purpose.
Another limit of the scale of war was the constantly shifting alliances and
distrust, and the weak communications between allies and between a king and his
troops.
- The Seven Years War (1756 – 1763) à began w/a
realignment of diplomatic alliances. Now, the antagonism between France and
England and the rivalry between Prussia and Austria was taking over. So,
Austria had a diplomatic revolution and made an alliance w/France and
Russia against Prussia. Prussia tried to find allies, so it sought England at
the Convention of Westminster, insulting France. England joined Prussia,
but still, Prussia was almost demolished. Luckily for them, at the last minute
the ruler of Russia goes and dies! A complete MORON who loves Frederick takes
over, and, just as Russian troops are about to get rid of Prussia, he turns
them back (what a loser!). Then, France and England work out their
difficulties. Finally, at the Peace of Hubertusburg (what a name)
Prussia gets Silesia and Austria gets Saxony back.
*Eighteenth-Century Colonial Empires*
- After 1715, the three original imperial powers
began to decline. Portugal retired from active competition (but kept Brazil),
the Dutch could only hope to protect their existing lands, and the Spanish grew
weaker, thought they still tried to keep their monopoly over trade.
- So, the English and the French became the new
colonial powers. The British and the French expanded their control in the West
Indies, West Africa, North America, and India/Asia (where they established
trading empires). Though the English and the French had different
administrative techniques for their colonies (English didn’t directly control
the colonies as much as the French did) both countries relied on mercantilist
techniques. So, the powers attempted to keep a trading monopoly with their
colonies. They did so using their naval powers.
- Colonial trade provided new products, stimulated
the economy and trade (remember Triangular Trade), and was based on slavery,
which decimated Africa.
-
The intense competition between the French and English soon led to fights
throughout their empires. Fighting broke out in Canada/North America, the Ohio
Valley (since the French began establishing strongholds in the wilderness, the
British feared that westward expansion would be cut off). The French gained the
allegiance of the American Indians (as they were not settlers, the Indians felt
that their presence would be better for them than the English).
- The Great War for Empire à after years of
hostilities, an official war broke out in 1756. This war, which was known as
the Seven Years’ War in Europe, was known as the French and Indian war in North
America and the Great War for Empire throughout. As the British (led by William
Pitt) had control of the seas, they were able to cut off supplies from
France and win the war in 1759.
- The Treaty of Paris à ended the war and
was favorable for England, though, in exchange for peace, the English gave back
some of the French islands they had taken. But the English got Canada.
- The British in India à the British entered
India and gained control gradually, first through the British East India
Company and later on directly through the English government itself (after
Sepoy mutiny). The British made a class loyal to them by turning the landlords
into a class of nobility and giving them control over their lands. The British
also educated an Indian bureaucracy trained in their ways. Many people were
drawn to India, mainly to make $, but some to “help civilize” the country.
- On the whole, the colonies greatly stimulated the
economy, and also led to increased competition. However, not all groups were
helped by the growth of the eighteenth century, for the peasants and slaves,
who were the backbone of society, never saw the fruits of their labor.
*The Definition of the Enlightenment
- The Enlightenment was a period of time in which
many intellectuals, who were called philosophs, began to question the
traditions of society and to look at the universe in a scientific, critical
light.
- During the Enlightenment, all the trademark
aspects of European society were exposed to criticism and analysis through
reason. No institution was spared, for even the church itself was attacked by
the cynical philosophs. Though the Enlightenment began as a movement that only
reached the intellectual elite of society, its repercussions would eventually
reach and have a big impact on society as a whole.
*The Beliefs of the Philosophs*
-
The philosophs, a group of intellectuals who supported the ideals of the
Enlightenment, stood for a series of beliefs, which they stood for, regardless
of the cost. These ideas included:
*The Famous Philosophs*
- Voltaire à our favorite!
Voltaire is often regarded as the leading figure of the Enlightenment. A
talented writer, Voltaire stood for many of the ideals of the period. First of
all, he greatly admired science and helped to popularize it. In 1738, he wrote Elements
of the Philosophy of Newton, which attempted to make Newton’s discoveries
understandable. Voltaire greatly admired the English, for he felt their society
had allowed greats like Locke, Bacon and Newton to rise, and in 1734 he wrote
the Philosophical Letters on the English, which celebrated English
toleration. Also, Voltaire absolutely hated religion (actually he didn’t hate
religion per se, but he really hated intolerance) and he wrote The
Philosophical Dictionary in 1764, which stated that organized religion bred
intolerance and superstition. Voltaire was a deist, and felt religion should be
a private matter. Throughout his life, Voltaire faced persecution and
censorship, and as a result, he was a dedicated advocator of intellectual and
religious freedom. Voltaire was a brilliant satirical writer (Candide)
and literary critic who poked fun at every element of society (which is why all
his books were banned).
- Diderot à most famous for his Encyclopedia,
Diderot also wrote a series of novels, plays, math theorems, and works on
religion and morality. His most original works examined the role of passion in
human personality and in morality. Diderot often felt that his contemporaries
overemphasized reason over passion. He also sometimes criticized religion, and
ended up as an atheist. But his most important work was the Encyclopedia,
which classified all human knowledge from the most common to the most complex.
The aim of the book was to “change the general way of thinking.” The book
treated religion w/artful satire, analyzing it like any other topic. Science
was the core of the book, and scientific techniques and discoveries were
presented in it. Economically, the Encyclopedia supported the Physiocratic view
against trade restrictions. The Encyclopedia was banned in many places, but it
was still distributed, and had a great impact on the intellectuals of Europe.
- Baron de Montesquieu à wrote The Spirit
of the Laws a book that described an ideal system of government using
checks and balances. He believed that societies and political institutions
could be studied scientifically, and that a balanced government would lead to
success.
- David Hume à he was the
empiricism who made that stupid argument about the tree falling in the forest.
He hated dogma, and I mean really hated it. He went around proving how
everybody was wrong. He was an atheist and he didn’t believe in any general
knowledge, so who knows what he did believe in. Anyhow, he wrote Inquiry
into Human Nature that criticized Christianity.
- Adam Smith à that economist dude.
Not that important. He only came up with an entire new philosophy on economics
but that isn’t part of this chapter so look at the other outline!
- Immanuel Kant à a brilliant
philosopher, he stated that Hume woke him from his “dogmatic slumber” and
believed that reality and perception were two different things. However, he
believed that so long as it is organized by certain concepts, like cause and
effect, science is still valid.
- Cesare Beccaria à was an economist and
penal reformer who wrote On Crimes and Punishments, which argued for
human rights and humanitarianism.
- Edward Gibbon à historian who
criticized Christianity and held it responsible for the fall of the Roman
Empire in The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
*The Elite Culture of the Enlightenment*
- During the Enlightenment, many new forms of
elite culture developed. These developments had hardly any effect on the
majority of the people, but the elite culture, united by French as a common
language, bound together into a cosmopolitan world.
- First of all, the elite began to travel around
Europe. They looked at the cultural centers and cities, as well as the ancient
monuments of antiquity. Cities were being spruced up during this time with the
additions of amenities (like streetlights and public transportation) and two
important new ideas, coffeehouses (where people could eat and talk) and shop
windows (sparked commerce).
- A so-called republic of letters began to
develop (popularized by Pierre Bayle, who like religious toleration), in which
journals and newspapers circulated among the elite. Though the republic was limited
to the educated, all classes and backgrounds could join in. The elite also met
in salons (philosophical party houses of the elite, very snobby and
stylish) and academies both of which helped spread ideas and unite
people. There, people could dispute their ideas and come up w/new ones.
-
Also, during this time, publishing increased tremendously and people began to
read more. Traveling libraries were developed, as were journals and, most
importantly, newspapers. There were new employment opportunities in bookselling
and publishing, as well as the smuggling of so-called bad books, which
ranged from Voltaire to pornography (i.e. anything that was banned).
*Art, Literature, and Music*
-
Art of the Enlightenment à the art of the
Enlightenment consisted of two competing styles, Rococo and Neoclassicism.
Rococo was the art of the nobility, meaningless, w/out content, but very
pretty, using bright, swirling colors, like Rubenism. Famous Rococo
painters were Francois Boucher and Fragonard. Neoclassicism, on
the other hand, favored line over color, and was all about drama, tension,
emotion, content, and an imitation ancient style. The philosophs loved the NC,
for they favored themes that the philosophs liked. Famous painter was Jacques
Louis David.
-
Literature of the Enlightenment à this is where the modern
novel was first developed, by Samuel Richardson and Henry Fielding,
both in England. The novel emerged as a new form of writing in which a story
was told and characters were presented in a realistic social context filled
with everyday problems. Another writer was Fanny Burney. Satire was also
perfected during the Enlightenment, by brilliant writers like Jonathan Swift,
and, naturally, good ol’ Voltaire. Also, during this time, romantic
poetry was born. Before, poetry followed strict rules and was not very
emotional or anything, but in the Enlightenment writers like William
Wordsworth and Friedrich von Schiller made it all mushy. Poetry came
to be a signature part of the new style, Romanticism. Johann von Goethe was
a romantic poet who came to embody the entire period and whose masterpiece was
called Faust.
-
Music of the Enlightenment à music really changed, and
the symphony developed into what it is today. Pretty much, this was the work of
Beethoven, Mozart and Hayden. After them, music also
became much more passionate and was full of expression and emotion.
*Popular Culture during the Enlightenment*
-
Popular culture was pretty much totally separate from the elite culture, and
was not really that affected by it at all. At this level culture was still
public recreation and oral tradition.
-
There was, however, some popular literature meant to be read aloud in the
community. This consisted of religious material, almanacs, and literature for
fun (stories). Mainly, popular writing actually fostered submissiveness, not
rebellion, for it had a fatalistic acceptance of the status quo.
-
But the most important part of popular culture was the oral tradition, which
consisted of the folktales and songs passed from generation to generation.
These tales expressed the hardships and goals of the time, with themes like
struggles to survive and magical happenings.
-
Though literacy rose a little, in rural areas it was still very low. Education
was scarce, for few parents could allow their children to go to school while
they were needed in the fields. Many of the elites, like Voltaire, did not
believe that the masses should be educated, but even when the government tried
to encourage education (Prussia, Austria) it did not really have a big result.
Anyway, even when they went to school, the goals of elementary schooling were
simply to instill religion and morality, show the value of hard work, and
promote deference to superiors, not really to learn anything.
-
Lastly, popular culture included festivals and taverns (the salons for normal
people) where common people could enjoy themselves and relax. Sports also
became important during this time, and people began to attend sporting events
more.
*Laissez-Faire Economics*
-
Many Europeans began to question and criticize the barriers that prevented
further industrialization and innovation. They called for less control of the
economy.
-
Adam Smith à a Scottish philosopher who
epitomized the concerns and desires of the age, and wrote An Inquiry into
the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776). Smith believed that
$ was not actually wealth, but only showed it, and that real wealth consisted
of the added value of manufactured items produced by invested capital. Most importantly,
however, he stated that economic progress required that each individual be
allowed to pursue his/her self-interest freely w/out restrictions for this
would lead to economic growth. Natural divisions of labor and specialization,
he stated, should be encouraged. This philosophy became known as laissez-faire
economics, which means that people should be allowed to pursue their own
economic interests. Smith also introduced the concept of the invisible hand
that stated that if all individuals follow their own self-interest, it would be
for the economic good of everyone, since everyone will do what they do best.
-
Laissez-faire economics really caught on, especially in England, and in 1786
France and Britain signed a free-trade treaty. Guilds were growing weaker, and
in 1791, the French got rid of them. In the 1790s, the English also began to
pass laws against them, and the merchants gained freedom.
*Demographic Change*
- Prior to the eighteenth century, the levels of
populations seemed to flow in cyclical, or wave-like patterns, depending on
natural phenomena such as crop failures, plagues, etc.
- Around 1730, a new era in Europe’s demography
began. During the 18th century (which is considered, demographically, to begin
in 1730), Europe’s population skyrocketed, jumping from 120 to 190 million.
Prussia, Sweden, Spain, France, and especially England experienced tremendous
population increases during this period. After this time, the cyclic behavior
of the populations stopped, and Europe’s population simply continued to
increase.
- The rapid population growth was, according to
historians, caused by a decline in mortality rates (as opposed to an increase
in birthrates) in all the countries except for England. The decline in mortality
rates occurred b/c Europe began to enjoy a more stable and better food supply
(due to improvement in avg. climate, opening of more farmland, and improvement
in transportation systems). Disease was still a major problem, but, on the
whole, mortality rates declined.
*Economic Growth*
- During the 18th century, overall wealth also
increased, although the growth was not consistent. Still, the overall trend
was a positive one. In the first decades of the century, prices remained
stable, due to the economic consequences of the War of the Spanish Succession.
Significant growth began around 1730 and continued until 1815. This period was
characterized by gradual price inflation (which reflected growing demands for
goods from a growing population). This gradual price inflation stimulated the
economy, and, although there were some problems, the economy generally grew.
- The growth, however, did not affect all
sectors of society in the same way. Though the gradual increase in prices
was good for landlords, employers, merchants, and landed peasants, it was very
bad for the poor, landless peasants, who could barely afford to live.
- Protoindustrialization à is the economic
development that occurred just prior to the rise of the factory system and may
have led to it. Protoindustrialization, a.k.a. the putting out system,
was a system in which merchants distributed raw materials to peasants’
households, who would process it, and then would pick it up and sell it.
Protoindustrialization led to increased manufacturing and population growth in
rural areas. Additionally, it strengthened marketing networks, helped merchants
get more $ (which could be re-invested in production), helped the peasants make
$ (increasing their demand for goods), and allowed peasants to familiarize
themselves w/industrial processes. Though it didn’t lead to technological
improvement, it helped economic growth.
*Changes in Industry*
- Though, during the 18th century, most industries
remained the same, dramatic change was beginning to occur, especially in the
manufacturing of cotton cloth. The changes in industry were meant to increase
the productivity of labor through new technologies. This replacement of workers
with new tools and machines, which is known as factor substitution,
eventually led to the factory.
- Increases in performance (which is
measured by the output per individual) in industry always depend on the structure
(characteristics that support industry – economy, politics, etc.) of the
society. Before Europeans could change the format of industry, they had to face
major obstacles and make changes that affected the very structure of European
society.
-
Europeans faced many difficulties as they attempted to change the structure of
the economy, such as:
*England Begins to Industrialize*
- England was the first nation to develop a social
structure supportive of innovation and economic growth. So, why was it England?
This is b/c of many advantages, such as:
*Cotton Begins Industrialization*
- Since England had developed a social structure
supportive of industrialization, all it needed was a take off industry,
or an industry that would begin a pattern of industrialization all the others
would follow. In England’s case, this industry was cotton manufacturing.
- Due to the slave labor in the plantations, there
was a very large supply of raw cotton. There was also a very high demand for
the durable, cheap cotton goods. However, the putting-out system had reached
its limits in productions, so merchants were ready to take the next step
towards industrialization.
- Richard Arkwright à inventor of the
water frame, which was able to twist fibers into thread using waterpower.
Before him, though weavers could make cloth quickly from yarn, production was
slowed down b/c the yard couldn’t be made quickly enough. Arkwright shifted the
balance the other way. Arkwright also made the very first factories.
- James Watt à inventor of the
steam engine. Arkwright asked Watt to use steam engines to drive his spinning
machines, and the first factories were created.
- Edmund Cartwright à inventor of a
power-driven loom. Though the opposition of handloom weavers and technical
flaws made the loom not really become available until the 19th century, once it
became available, both spinning and weaving could go incredibly fast.
-
The cotton industry was revolutionized by the 19th century, for goods could be
made incredibly fast, and merchants could house all their workers in factories
and watch them work. After industrialization, the price of cotton fell
tremendously, and it became available to many poorer people.
*Changes in Agriculture*
- In England, many peasants were able to leave the
country and go to the city, where they found work as factory laborers, because
of the new agricultural techniques, which caused an increase in efficiency and
productivity. If it hadn’t been for these changes, the peasants could not have
left.
- Convertible Husbandry à instead of letting
land lie unused every second or third year (to prevent it from become
infertile) agricultural innovators planted fields w/turnips (which could also
provide feed for livestock, which could make fertilizer) to help it regain
fertility. If they encountered other problems, they would experiment w/other
crops that would hopefully fix the problems.
- Charles Townshend à innovator who proved
the value of planting turnips instead of resting land.
- Jethro Tull à noble who was into
agricultural innovation.
- In addition to convertible husbandry, innovators
experimented with selective breeding of animals.
- Enclosure Movement à throughout Europe,
all towns shared communal lands, which were divided into small plots. This made
it very difficult to change agricultural techniques, since the village as a
whole had to agree to a certain technique. But, in England, Parliament was able
to (in response to the petitioning of large landowners) enclose all the land in
a village, even against the will of the village itself. Though enclosure was
difficult and expensive, it was worth it, for it ended up generating high
profits. In the end, the communal field system was practically eradicated in
England, leading to the domination of rural society by great landlords and
their tenant farmers. Enclosure also forced many peasants to leave for the
cities, where they could then find work.
- On the continent, however, things were very
different, for, in Eastern Europe, nobles completely controlled the lives of
their serfs, who spent their time in unpaid labor for their noble lord. In
Western Europe, though there was no serfdom, most peasants lived under a system
called seigneurialism, in which the peasants lived under a local lord
and owed him certain obligations. Since, throughout the continent, peasants
were barely surviving, they had little time to worry about efficiency (change
was too risky to afford). So change came very slowly, especially in Eastern
Europe.